6. Biopiracy

                We have seen the vast range of influences plants have had on our world; however, the exchange of this knowledge was not always conducted ethically. The discovery of new biological information is referred to as bioprospecting. Biopiracy is a type of bioprospecting, where this biological knowledge is exploited, without appropriate compensation to those originally familiar with the plant. Also referred to as ‘plant transfers,’ biopiracy has been an issue with biological progress, both historically and in modern times.

1.

                In the early 1800s, China had a monopoly on tea, as it was the sole exporter of the plant and restricted trade. The demand was growing in Europe, however, and the British East India Company wanted their own access to the plant. In 1848, the company sent Robert Fortune, a plant hunter, to China to collect and retrieve tea. Fortune traveled to China in disguise, where he collected plants and seeds, and learned about growing methods, which were much simpler than the Westerners had believed. Fortune brought more than twenty thousand tea plants to India, which by 1890, supplied 90% of Britain’s tea.

2.

                Another historical example of biopiracy involves the transfer of quinine. Quinine was the first effective treatment for malaria, and is derived from the bark of the cinchona tree, which is indigenous to South America. The demand for quinine was so high that the cinchona tree nearly became extinct. Then, in 1860, Clements Markham successfully smuggled cinchona seeds to Britain, which were then cultivated in India and the West Indies.

3.

                This crime is an issue in the ancient world as well as the modern world. In 1997, an American company was granted a patent on Basmati rice, even though this rice had been grown for thousands of years by Indian and Pakistani growers. This meant that the growers and exporters would have to pay royalties to the company if they used the familiar Basmati name that they had used for years. This patent was rescinded after protests, but it is still an example of how biopiracy helps developed countries exploit foreign farmers and growers.

4.

                Biopiracy has a culturally and biologically negative impact. First of all, this practice is harmful to the interests of the indigenous people who have the knowledge of the plant and how to use it effectively. These people receive no compensation for their information, which is a form of exploitation. Additionally, biopiracy threatens biodiversity.

Relevant Sites:

http://www.lepassagemoganshan.com/index.php/plant-hunters/tea-thieves-plant-hunters

http://www.amazonlink.org/biopiracy/biopiracy_history.htm

http://www.infobarrel.com/Biopiracy_and_Brazil

https://www.downtoearth.org/environment/genetic-engineering/ancient-rice-modern-world-biopiracy-and-bioengineering

Photo Citations:

1. http://sites.duke.edu/amazonbiopiracy/files/2013/12/Biopiracy2.jpg

2. http://www.roninfilms.com.au/images/large/466.jpg

3.­ http://portlandfoodanddrink.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/05/quinine-bark.jpg

4. http://simbahayan.tripod.com/images/biopiracy.gif

5. The Importance of Cotton

                As we have learned in this class, plants have had a huge impact on ancient cultures, historical events, and current customs. Of all the plants we’ve talked about so far, I believe that cotton has had the greatest influence on our world (besides wood).

1.

                First of all, cotton was a crop that was traded worldwide, therefore affecting many countries and people along the way. Originally found in India as early as 5 B.C., cotton was brought west to Europe by the Moors. Although Britain was one of the last countries to receive the plant in the 16^th century, cotton became an essential import for the country’s economy. Cotton constituted 66% of the British East India Company’s imports by the 1680s; the profits from trading cotton allowed the company to expand their business and obtain much more power worldwide.

2.

                As trade increased, cotton grew in popularity, and the demand for cotton goods rose in Europe. Cheap slave labor was required to produce enough raw materials on plantations in the American colonies. Cotton became an essential part of the triangle trade, and therefore was involved in the slave trade. Although the demand for cotton and the supply of raw cotton were both present, there was a lack of skilled labor to process the plant and produce cotton cloth. This absence inspired technological advances in Britain to make the process faster and more efficient, and this led to the Industrial Revolution. Although these practices were originally developed for cotton, soon the production of many other goods was mechanized.

3.

                 Although cotton has made a huge impact throughout history, it continues to be incredibly relevant today. This is apparent in how many products cotton is a part of, from food to clothing to currency, to name a few. Furthermore, the production and export of cotton is a huge industry today, which helps the economies of many countries. For example, the United States, one of the largest exporters of cotton, makes $25 million a year from the cotton industry. Cotton’s existing prevalence in society proves its importance throughout history.

4.

Relevant Sites:

https://www.cotton.org/pubs/cottoncounts/story/importance.cfm

http://www.cottonguide.org/cotton-guide/the-world-cotton-market/the-importance-of-cotton-in-world-trade/?menuID=3502

Photo Citations:

1. http://www.loeser.us/flags/images/revolution/british_east_indies_varient_1801.gif

2.­ http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Detailed_Triangle_Trade.jpg

3.http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Interior_of_Magnolia_Cotton_Mills_spinning_room._See_the_little_ones_scattered_through_the_mill._All_work._Magnolia..._-_NARA_-_523307.jpg

4. http://www.altenergy.org/oldgrowth/images/20bucks.jpg

The British East India Company

1.

                The British East India Company was a politically and economically powerful organization that made its profit from trading goods worldwide. It was founded in 1600 to partake in the spice trade with East India, and expanded over the years to trade a wide variety of goods from many different countries. Cotton, tea, and opium were three of the plants that had a huge impact on the business and success of the company.

2.

                Cotton was one of the first large markets that the BEIC got involved in, becoming over 60% of the company’s trade by the 1680s. It was the growing demand for cotton in Europe that gave the BEIC the profits it needed to expand its business, which brought them to China, where they got involved in trading tea. Tea had become a very popular drink in Europe; however, China had control over the trade, as it was one of the few places tea was known to grow. China would only accept silver as payment, so the BEIC put a high tax on tea being sold back in Europe. These taxes helped the company maintain their power

3.

                Acquiring large amounts of silver had become quite expensive for the BEIC, so they began to look for other forms of payments to the Chinese. The company had access to a lot of opium, so they began trading it for silver, where it was then smuggled into China. Chinese opposition to these illegal opium exports eventually led to the Opium Wars in 1839-1842. The British victory in these wars allowed the East India Company to gain power and expand their operations even further.

Relevant Sites:

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/176643/East-India-Company

http://web.utk.edu/~gerard/romanticpolitics/britisheastindia.html

Photo Citations:

1. http://www.victorianweb.org/history/empire/india/eastindia.jpg

2.­ http://www.commoditytrademantra.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/silver-2.jpg

3. http://philebersole.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/the-opium-war.jpg

Barley & Beer

1.

                Barley has been a very influential plant, both throughout history and in our world today. It played a huge role in the shift of the human lifestyle from a hunter-gatherer society to an agricultural civilization. This transition, known as the Neolithic Revolution, took place in the Fertile Crescent, mainly as a response to a changing climate. Barley was one of the main cereals that was domesticated at the start of the Neolithic Revolution. These crops were cultivated, harvested, and stored, enabling the creation of civilizations. This drastic change in lifestyle had both positive and negative effects that changed the course of human history.

2.

                When humans were hunters and gatherers, they had to constantly move around to adapt to the climate and find the available food sources. However, with the invention of agriculture, people could settle down and stay in one place, which led to a much more sedentary way of life. The diet became less balanced, and nutrition suffered; farmers were much less physically fit and had worse teeth than hunter-gatherers, and the average height decreased. Farming societies are also much more vulnerable to the weather and environment, such as droughts, famines, and disease. On the other hand, the domestication of plants and animals meant a steady source of food, and often a surplus of food. This security allowed specialization and the appearance of new skills, such as tool-making, carpentry, and weaving. This led to more structured societies and therefore the creation of government, and an increase in trade.

3.

                Today, barley continues to be an important plant as the fourth largest grain crop in the world. It is a key ingredient in beer and foods like bread and cereal, all of which are very widely consumed. Barley offers a number of health benefits, most notably reducing cholesterol, improve the immune system, and possibly reduce the risk of heart disease. The Carlsberg brewery strives to produce the highest quality beer from the highest quality barley. This would be impossible without the domestication of plants and the Neolithic Revolution.

4.

Relevant Sites:

http://www.gohistorygo.com/#!neolithic-revolution-/c171w

http://wholegrainscouncil.org/whole-grains-101/barley-february-grain-of-the-month

http://h2g2.com/edited_entry/A2054675

Photo Citations:

1. http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/postharvest/pht_cereal_barley_clip_imagebarley.jpg

2.­ http://makaylashistorywebsite.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/5/9/13599554/4723501.jpg?1348065752

3. http://careforthebody.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/evolution.jpg?w=625

4. http://www.copenhagenet.dk/cph-map/Images/Carlsberg-Beer-Logo.jpg

2. The Spice Trade

THE SPICE TRADE 

1.

                The trade of spices has played an important role throughout history. Spices have historically been very precious, expensive, and in high demand. Many spices originated from the Spice Islands, also known as the Maluccas, within Indonesia. Originally, Arab spice merchants controlled the spice trade, and brought spices throughout Asia, the Middle East, and Europe using camel caravans over land routes, such as the Silk Road. These Arab merchants did not divulge the location of the Spice Islands, which added to the mystery surrounding spices, and ensured high prices.  

2.

                Many groups battled for control of the spice trade over the years. In the first century B.C., the Roman Empire set up an important trading post in Alexandria, and was responsible for all the spices entering the Greek and Roman areas. In the mid-13^th century, Venice became a prominent trade port, and became the Western link to Eastern spices. Europe was unable to circumvent these trading ports and get to the spices directly, so prices became so high it was nearly impossible for most people to pay it. There are even some instances of spices being so valuable that people were paid in spices. For example, Roman soldiers were sometimes paid in salt, leading to the word “salary.” So, spices became a symbol of wealth and status in Europe. Spices were also coveted in Europe for their flavor in food, medicinal values, and use in Christian worship.

3.

                Europe’s desire for the spices themselves, but more importantly, for the power and profit of controlling its trade, led to the Age of Discovery. Frustrated with the Arab-Venetian trade monopoly on spices, Spain and Portugal led expeditions in search of a shortcut to the Spice Islands. Christopher Columbus set sail looking for a shortcut to India on behalf of Spain. Although he never found the East Indies, he instead found the Americas and brought spices such as chili peppers and vanilla back to Europe. The Portuguese Empire was successful when Vasco da Gama sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and landed on the Malabar Coast of India. This success allowed Europe access to the Eastern spices, as well as creating a worldwide trade network and encouraging global exploration.

Link to relevant websites:

http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/spices-how-search-flavors-influenced-our-world

http://www.silkroadspices.ca/history-of-spice-trade

Photo citations:

1. http://spicesherbscentre.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/spices-herbs-kuala-lumpur.jpg

2. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Silk_route.jpg

3. http://18explorers.tripod.com/Vasco%20Da%20Gama.jpg

1. Tobacco & Cotton

TOBACCO

1. 

2. 

                Tobacco, a North American plant, was originally brought to Europe by Columbus in 1492. This plant has had a wide range of uses over the years, including ritualistic and recreational smoking, and was even considered to be a medical resource for some time. King James I of England denounced tobacco both in writing and by raising the tariff on tobacco, though this proved to be ineffective in deterring the Europeans from smoking.  As America was colonized, tobacco production increased to meet England’s growing demand as the habit spread. Planting and sowing tobacco was physically demanding, and this high demand caused slaves to replace indentured migrants in 1619, at the start of the slave trade. This increased trade with England yielded high profits, but also encouraged smuggling and piracy. Heavy taxation and trade restrictions (with tobacco being one of the main exports) were a leading cause of the 1775 American War of Independence, which is why it is sometimes referred to as the ‘Tobacco War.’

COTTON

3. 

4. 

Cotton, known as ‘tree wool,’ has been used for a very long time, at least since 5 B.C. when the Indians would spin the plant into cloth. The plant was brought west, and the British East India Company began trading cotton in 1600. Europe’s demand for cotton increased exponentially, and by the mid-1800s, America began the majority supplier of raw cotton. At this point, Europe had both the demand for spun cotton and the supply of raw cotton, but lacked the labor. This led to technological advancements and the mechanization of the cotton spinning industry. This Industrial Revolution caused urbanization, and many people moved to the cities to work in factories. However, working in these factories was brutal, as pay was low and the conditions were dangerous. Child labor also became prevalent, and slave labor was used to grow cotton in the Southern states.

CONNECTIONS & SIMILARITIES

5. 

             There are a number of similarities between tobacco and cotton, and the affect they had on American and European history. Most importantly, these plants were very important in the economies of, and trade between, the Americas and Europe. They led to new developments; tobacco helped instigate the founding of the United States, while cotton inspired the start of the Industrial Revolution. However, there was also a negative side to this technical progress and economic prosperity. The trade of tobacco encouraged piracy and smuggling, while its production prompted the beginning of the slave trade. Along with the industrialization and urbanization that cotton production brought to Europe, came air pollution, unsafe factory working conditions, and child labor. 

Link to Relevant Website: http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/scotlandshistory/jacobitesenlightenmentclearances/tobacco/index.asp

Photo Citations:

1. http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2011/7/19/1311091925648/Tobacco-plants-007.jpg

2. http://www.hcs.harvard.edu/~hghr/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/tobacco-300x198.jpg

3. http://photonews.com.pk/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/cotton-plant-19.jpg

4. http://3.imimg.com/data3/QD/YM/MY-1491244/dyed-cotton-fabric-250x250.jpg

5. http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-o4nvUn9fvNc/UAiCocqbgwI/AAAAAAAAFU0/sLQK0Dm4Pwg/s1600/Natives+Working+on+Sudanese+Cotton+Plantation+c1930.jpg